![Mars’s permanent north polar water-ice cap, in two views acquired in early northern summer one …[Credits : NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems]](http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/65/73465-004-9BC61E62.jpg)
Mars’s permanent north polar water-ice cap, in two views acquired in early northern summer one Martian year apart (March 1999, left, and January 2001, right) by Mars Global Surveyor. Ringing the cap, which measures about 1,100 km (680 miles) across, are dark sand dunes marking the northern part of Vastitas Borealis. The cap’s distinctive appearance reflects the spiral pattern of escarpments and valleys present in the underlying terrain. Differences in the summer frost cover can be seen by comparing the images; though they appear small, they indicate large annual changes in the heat budget for the polar cap.
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