The tombs, pyramids, and necropolises of ancient Egypt attest to an extraordinary concern for the state of the dead, who, in sharp contrast to Mesopotamian belief, are described as living on in a multiplicity of forms and locations suitable to their rank and worth—in or near the grave, in the desert regions of the west, in the fertile fields of Earu, in the heavens with the midday sun and circumpolar stars, or under the earth, where the sun travels by night. As the mortuary cult of Osiris developed and the prerogative of surviving death extended from royalty to common people, greater attention focused on the underworld. Texts such as the Book of the Dead, the Book of Amduat, and the Book of Gates exhaustively describe the perilous journey through the 12 zones of the underworld (corresponding to the 12 hours of night) and the harrowing judgment over which Osiris presides.
The deceased needed both magical and moral power to be acquitted of offenses when appearing before Osiris. Elaborate ritual provisions were made, therefore, to translate the deceased from a mortal to an immortal condition; they included mummifying the body, adorning the tomb with prayers and offerings, and equipping the deceased with spells, amulets, and formulaic affidavits of innocence to win safe passage and ensure success at the divine tribunal. Those who succeeded won immortality by identification with Osiris or with the sun. Those who failed were devoured by a crocodile-headed monster, tormented by demons, or worse; yet rarely is there the suggestion of eternal condemnation. The tomb remained a place where the dead could be comforted or appeased by the living, and the mortuary texts were a constant reminder of the need to prepare for the final passage.
The-Condemned-in-Hell-fresco-by-Luca-Signorelli-1500-02The Condemned in Hell, fresco by Luca Signorelli, 1500–02; in …[Credits : SCALA—Art Resource/EB Inc.]
Hades-and-Persephone-in-the-underworld-interior-of-a-redHades and Persephone in the underworld, interior of a red-figure cup, Greek, from Vulci, a town of …[Credits : Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum]
The-Jaws-of-Hell-illumination-from-the-Psalter-of-Henry“The Jaws of Hell,” illumination from the Psalter of Henry of Blois (MS. Cotton Nero …[Credits : Courtesy of the trustees of the British Library]
Anastasis-apse-fresco-1320-in-the-Church-of-the-HolyAnastasis (Christ ascending from hell), apse fresco, 1320; in the …[Credits : Courtesy Dumbarton Oaks Field Committee, Washington D.C.]
Hell-open-right-panel-of-the-triptych-Garden-of-EarthlyHell, open right panel of the triptych Garden of …[Credits : Archivo Mas, Barcelona]
Kannon-the-bodhisattva-of-compassion-Takasaki-JapanKannon, the bodhisattva of compassion; Takasaki, Japan.[Credits : Tsuneo Iwata&/Bon]
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