In the middle of the 2nd millennium bce, Aryan peoples migrated into northwestern India, bringing with them a religion influenced by that of ancient Iran. According to the great texts of this tradition, the Vedas (c. 1500–1200 bce), the proper performance of sacrifices establishes right relations with the cosmos, enabling one to prosper in life and to join one’s ancestors in the sky in death. The ritually unprepared, and in later accounts the ignorant and morally unworthy, face the grim prospect of near-extinction or descent into a dark, cold underworld.
In the esoteric teachings recorded in the foundational philosophical texts of classical Hinduism, the Brahmanas and Upanishads, hope for a joyful immortality depends upon finding within oneself, and harnessing through spiritual discipline, the mysterious power brahma, which pervades the universe and dwells hidden in the sounds and gestures of ritual sacrifice. Those who die unprepared must be reborn (samsara) to live out the consequences of their past deeds (karma). Grave sins incur a miserable rebirth in hell or an interval in hell en route to rebirth on a low plane of existence. The goal of Hindu practice is to be freed from all forms of birth and to be restored to a state of perfect consciousness and imperishable bliss in communion with the divine.
As Hindu mythology evolved, Yama, at first a celestial god and judge of the dead, became associated with death in its most fearsome aspect, and the underworld hells became as numerous and varied as the heavens. The Puranas, encyclopaedic collections of Hindu myths and legends, supplied vivid details on the modalities of dismemberment, piercing, burning, and putrefaction assigned to each hell and specific to each crime. In the devotional forms of Hinduism that began to flower in the 12th and 13th centuries and continue to predominate today, the wish to avoid rebirth in hell is a powerful incentive to offer worship and perform selfless acts. Hindu philosophers and mystics, however, have continued to concentrate on the ultimate goal of transcending rebirth completely through spiritual discipline.
The-Condemned-in-Hell-fresco-by-Luca-Signorelli-1500-02The Condemned in Hell, fresco by Luca Signorelli, 1500–02; in …[Credits : SCALA—Art Resource/EB Inc.]
Hades-and-Persephone-in-the-underworld-interior-of-a-redHades and Persephone in the underworld, interior of a red-figure cup, Greek, from Vulci, a town of …[Credits : Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum]
The-Jaws-of-Hell-illumination-from-the-Psalter-of-Henry“The Jaws of Hell,” illumination from the Psalter of Henry of Blois (MS. Cotton Nero …[Credits : Courtesy of the trustees of the British Library]
Anastasis-apse-fresco-1320-in-the-Church-of-the-HolyAnastasis (Christ ascending from hell), apse fresco, 1320; in the …[Credits : Courtesy Dumbarton Oaks Field Committee, Washington D.C.]
Hell-open-right-panel-of-the-triptych-Garden-of-EarthlyHell, open right panel of the triptych Garden of …[Credits : Archivo Mas, Barcelona]
Kannon-the-bodhisattva-of-compassion-Takasaki-JapanKannon, the bodhisattva of compassion; Takasaki, Japan.[Credits : Tsuneo Iwata&/Bon]
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