nanotechnology Nanotechnology research

As discussed in the section Properties at the nanoscale, material properties—electrical, optical, magnetic, mechanical, and chemical—depend on their exact dimensions. This opens the way for development of new and improved materials through manipulation of their nanostructure. Hierarchical assemblies of nanoscale-engineered materials into larger structures, or their incorporation into devices, provide the basis for tailoring radically new materials and machines.

Nature’s assemblies point the way to improving structural materials. The often-cited abalone seashell provides a beautiful example of how the combination of a hard, brittle inorganic material with nanoscale structuring and a soft, “tough” organic material can produce a strong, durable nanocomposite—basically, these nanocomposites are made of calcium carbonate “bricks” held together by a glycoprotein “glue.” New engineered materials are emerging—such as polymer-clay nanocomposites—that are not only strong and tough but also lightweight and easier to recycle than conventional reinforced plastics. Such improvements in structural materials are particularly important for the transportation industry, where reduced weight directly translates into improved fuel economy. Other improvements can increase safety or decrease the impact on the environment of fabrication and recycling. Further advances, such as truly smart materials that signal their impending failure or are even able to self-repair flaws, may be possible with composites of the future.

Sensors are central to almost all modern control systems. For example, multiple sensors are used in automobiles for such diverse tasks as engine management, emission control, security, safety, comfort, vehicle monitoring, and diagnostics. While such traditional applications for physical sensing generally rely on microscale sensing devices, the advent of nanoscale materials and structures has led to new electronic, photonic, and magnetic nanosensors, sometimes known as “smart dust.” Because of their small size, nanosensors exhibit unprecedented speed and sensitivity, extending in some cases down to the detection of single molecules. For example, nanowires made of carbon nanotubes, silicon, or other semiconductor materials exhibit exceptional sensitivity to chemical species or biological agents. Electrical current through nanowires can be altered by having molecules attached to their surface that locally perturb their electronic band structure. By means of nanowire surfaces coated with sensor molecules that selectively attach particular species, charge-induced changes in current can be used to detect the presence of those species. This same strategy is adopted for many classes of sensing systems. New types of sensors with ultrahigh sensitivity and specificity will have many applications; for example, sensors that can detect cancerous tumours when they consist of only a few cells would be a very significant advance.

Nanomaterials also make excellent filters for trapping heavy metals and other pollutants from industrial wastewater. One of the greatest potential impacts of nanotechnology on the lives of the majority of people on Earth will be in the area of economical water desalination and purification. Nanomaterials will very likely find important use in fuel cells, bioconversion for energy, bioprocessing of food products, waste remediation, and pollution-control systems.

A recent concern regarding nanoparticles is whether their small sizes and novel properties may pose significant health or environmental risks. In general, ultrafine particles—such as the carbon in photocopier toners or in soot produced by combustion engines and factories—have adverse respiratory and cardiovascular effects on people and animals. Studies are under way to determine if specific nanoscale particles pose higher risks that may require special regulatory restrictions. Of particular concern are potential carcinogenic risks from inhaled particles and the possibility for very small nanoparticles to cross the blood-brain barrier to unknown effect. Nanomaterials currently receiving attention from health officials include carbon nanotubes, buckyballs, and cadmium selenide quantum dots. Studies of the absorption through the skin of titanium oxide nanoparticles (used in sunscreens) are also planned. More far-ranging studies of the toxicity, transport, and overall fate of nanoparticles in ecosystems and the environment have not yet been undertaken. Some early animal studies, involving the introduction of very high levels of nanoparticles which resulted in the rapid death of many of the subjects, are quite controversial.