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  • Cambridge Gulf (gulf, Australia)
    The Ord, Durack, Pentecost, and Forrest rivers enter the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf via an estuarine division called Cambridge Gulf, which is the site of Wyndham, the area’s principal port. The Victoria River flows into the gulf’s Queen’s Channel and the Fitzmaurice River into Keyling Inlet. Aboriginal reserves are on the east and west shores. The gulf was entered (1644) by the Dut...
  • Cambridge Magazine, The (British periodical)
    In 1912 Ogden founded an intellectual weekly, The Cambridge Magazine, to which Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells, and other noted literary figures contributed. In 1919 he turned it into a quarterly and, with the literary scholar I.A. Richards, began publishing preliminary sketches for a book on the theory of language, The Meaning of Meaning (1923). In this work he......
  • Cambridge Medieval History (British historical work)
    ...(“Historical Monuments of the Germans”), a research and publication institute founded in 1819 and still in operation in Munich, and in the eight-volume collaborative Cambridge Medieval History (1911–36). (The latter’s replacement, The New Cambridge Medieval History, began to appear in 1998.)...
  • Cambridge Modern History, The (British historical work)
    In 1899 and 1900 he devoted much of his energy to coordinating the project of The Cambridge Modern History, a monument of objective, detailed, collaborative scholarship. His efforts to secure, direct, and coordinate contributors for the project exhausted him, and he died from the effects of a paralytic stroke that he had suffered in 1901....
  • Cambridge Platform (religious document)
    basic document of New England Congregationalism, prepared in Cambridge, Mass. (U.S.), in 1648. It provided for all the details of church government, including the principle that was basic to Congregationalism, the autonomy of the local congregation. In doctrinal matters, the Cambridge Platform incorporated the Westminster Confession, the creedal statement of Presbyterianism that was completed in ...
  • Cambridge Platonists (English philosophical group)
    group of 17th-century English philosophic and religious thinkers who hoped to reconcile Christian ethics with Renaissance humanism, religion with the new science, and faith with rationality. Their leader was Benjamin Whichcote, who expounded in his sermons the Christian humanism that united the group. His principal disciples at the University of Cambridge were Ralph Cudworth, Henry More, and John...
  • “Cambridge Quarters” (work by Crotch)
    The chime tune most commonly heard in English-speaking countries is the “Westminster Quarters” (originally “Cambridge Quarters”), consisting of the four notes E–D–C–G in various combination each quarter hour. Composed at Cambridge University by an organ student, William Crotch, for use with the new clock at Great St. Mary’s Church, in 1793, i...
  • Cambridge, Richard, Earl of (English noble)
    ...The first was organized by Sir John Oldcastle, a Lollard and former confidant of the king. Though Oldcastle was not arrested until 1417, little came of his rising. Another plot gathered around Richard, 5th Earl of Cambridge, a younger brother of the Duke of York. The aim was to place the Earl of March on the throne, but March himself gave the plot away, and the leading conspirators were......
  • Cambridge, Richard Owen (English author)
    English poet and essayist and author of the Scribleriad....
  • Cambridge Rules (sports)
    ...As early as 1843 an attempt to standardize and codify the rules of play was made at the University of Cambridge, whose students joined most public schools in 1848 in adopting these “Cambridge rules,” which were further spread by Cambridge graduates who formed football clubs. In 1863 a series of meetings involving clubs from metropolitan London and surrounding counties......
  • Cambridge school of economics
    ...1908, Pigou was named as Marshall’s replacement. Pigou was responsible for disseminating many of Marshall’s ideas and thereby provided the leading theoretical basis for what came to be known as the Cambridge school of economics....
  • Cambridge Songs (Latin song anthology)
    The ease with which religious forms such as the sequence are adapted for secular use is nowhere seen better than in the 11th-century compilation known as the Cambridge Songs. The blend of humorous contes, hymnody, and lyric testifies to a diverse taste in the unknown anthologist. Other lyric collections from the next century, such as the Ripoll and Arundel lyrics, may draw upon work of......
  • Cambridge, Statute of (English history)
    ...seals had become. From that time, also, seals were used to close folded documents and thus to guarantee their secrecy. Seals were also used to affirm assent; for example, by a jury. Under the Statute of Cambridge (1388), sealed letters were used in England for the identification of people and their places of origin....
  • Cambridge Synod of 1648 (Puritanism)
    Richard’s most respected work is his summation of principles as adopted at the Cambridge Synod of 1648 and considered to be the clearest statement of Puritan Congregationalism....
  • Cambridge, University of (university, Cambridge, England, United Kingdom)
    English autonomous institution of higher learning at Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, Eng., on the River Cam 50 miles (80 km) north of London....
  • Cambridge University Press (British publishing company)
    The famed 11th edition was issued in 29 volumes by the Cambridge University Press in 1910–11 after editorial disputes and a lawsuit between Jackson and Horace Hooper had prompted The Times to cancel its contract in 1909. As with the 10th edition, the 11th saw Franklin Hooper in charge of the New York editorial office and Hugh Chisholm of the London office,......
  • Cambridge Yiddish Codex (Yiddish book)
    ...older. The earliest known connected text is a rhymed couplet inscribed in a Hebrew holiday prayer book from Worms that bears the date 1272–73. The earliest extensive manuscript, known as the Cambridge Yiddish Codex, is explicitly dated Nov. 9, 1382. It excites the interest of Germanicists for its version of “Dukus Horant” (a poem from the Hildesage of the Kudrun [Gudrun] ep...
  • Cambridgeshire (county, England, United Kingdom)
    administrative, geographic, and historic county of eastern England. The administrative county covers a much larger area than the ancient shire, or historic county. Formed in 1974, the administrative county incorporates almost all of the historic county of Cambridgeshire and most of the historic county of Huntingdonshire (which is nearly coterminous with the di...
  • Cambrobrytannicae Cymraecaeve linguae institutiones et rudimenta (work by Rhys)
    Welsh physician and grammarian whose grammar, Cambrobrytannicae Cymraecaeve linguae institutiones et rudimenta (1592), was the first to expound the Welsh language through the international medium of Latin....
  • Cambyses I (ruler of Anshan)
    ruler of Anshan c. 600–559 bc. Cambyses was the son of Cyrus I and succeeded his father in Anshan (northwest of Susa in Elam) as a vassal of King Astyages of Media. According to the 5th-century-bc Greek historian Herodotus, Cambyses married a daughter of Astyages, by whom he became the father of Cyrus II the Great....
  • Cambyses II (king of Persia)
    Achaemenid king of Persia (reigned 529–522 bc), who conquered Egypt in 525; he was the eldest son of King Cyrus II the Great by Cassandane, daughter of a fellow Achaemenid. During his father’s lifetime Cambyses was in charge of Babylonian affairs. In 538 he performed the ritual duties of a Babylonian king at the important New Year festival, and in 530...
  • camcorder (electronics)
    Colour home movies can be made with the use of a camcorder system; this consists of a videocassette recorder that is connected to a relatively light and simple video camera. One camcorder system uses 8-millimetre videotape, and other portable video systems are available for filming outside of the home or studio....
  • Camden (New Jersey, United States)
    city, seat (1844) of Camden county, New Jersey, U.S., on the Delaware River, there bridged to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 1681, the year before Philadelphia was founded, William Cooper built a home near the Cooper River where it enters the Delaware and named the tract Pyne Point. Settlement, largely by Quakers, was slow. A town site was l...
  • Camden (Maine, United States)
    city, seat (1844) of Camden county, New Jersey, U.S., on the Delaware River, there bridged to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 1681, the year before Philadelphia was founded, William Cooper built a home near the Cooper River where it enters the Delaware and named the tract Pyne Point. Settlement, largely by Quakers, was slow. A town site was l...
  • Camden (New South Wales, Australia)
    town, eastern New South Wales, Australia, on the Nepean section of the Hawkesbury River, in the Southern Highlands. The locality, originally known as Cowpastures, was renamed Camden Park in 1805, after the 2nd earl Camden, secretary of state for the colonies at that time, by John Macarthur, who bred merino sheep in Australia. The village, surveyed in 1836, was proclaimed a munic...
  • Camden (county, New Jersey, United States)
    county, southwestern New Jersey, U.S., bordered to the west by Pennsylvania, the Delaware River constituting the boundary. It comprises a lowland region drained by the Mullica and Great Egg Harbor rivers. The primary forest species are oak and hickory....
  • Camden (Arkansas, United States)
    city, seat (1843) of Ouachita county, southern Arkansas, U.S., 100 miles (160 km) south-southwest of Little Rock, on a pine-covered bluff overlooking the Ouachita River. Settled in 1783, it was first known as Écore á Fabre (for a French pioneer). After 1824 steamboats docked at the site. It was incorporated in 1844 and was rena...
  • Camden (South Carolina, United States)
    city, seat (1791) of Kershaw county, in north-central South Carolina, U.S. It was founded by English settlers along the Wateree River about 1733 and was originally known as Pine Tree Hill. It changed its name in 1768 to honour Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, a British supporter of the colonial cause and became a contested site in the ...
  • Camden (borough, London, United Kingdom)
    inner borough of London, part of the historic county of Middlesex, to the north of Westminster and the historic City of London. It extends some 5 miles (8 km) from below High Holborn (road) to the northern heights of Hampstead Heath. Camden was created a borough in 1965 by the amalgamation of the former ...
  • Camden and Amboy Railroad (American railway)
    ...in Baltimore were stronger than those of Robert Stephenson. Leveling rods kept those locomotives on the relatively poor track, and a swiveling leading truck guided them into tight curves. On the Camden and Amboy Railroad, another pioneering line, the engineer John Jervis invented the T- cross-section rail that greatly cheapened and simplified the laying of track when combined with the wooden......
  • Camden, Battle of (United States history)
    (August 16, 1780), in the American Revolution, British victory in South Carolina, one of the most crushing defeats ever inflicted upon an American army....
  • Camden, Charles Pratt, 1st Earl, Viscount Bayham of Bayham Abbey, Baron Camden of Camden Place (British jurist)
    English jurist who, as chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas (1761–66), refused to enforce general warrants (naming no particular person to be arrested). As lord chancellor of Great Britain (1766–70), he opposed the government’s North American colonial policy of taxation without parliamentary representation....
  • Camden, John Jeffreys Pratt, 1st Marquess, 2nd Earl Camden, Earl of the County of Brecknock, Viscount Bayham of Bayham Abbey, Baron Camden of Camden Place (British politician)
    lord lieutenant (viceroy) of Ireland from 1795 to 1798, when his repressive actions touched off a major rebellion against British rule....
  • Camden Town Group (British art group)
    group of English Post-Impressionist artists who met on a weekly basis in the studio of the painter Walter Sickert in Camden Town (an area of London)....
  • Camden, William (British historian)
    English antiquary, a pioneer of historical method, and author of Britannia, the first comprehensive topographical survey of England....
  • Camden Yards (stadium, Baltimore, Maryland, United States)
    The city’s representatives in professional sports are the Orioles (baseball) and the Ravens (American football). The celebrated Oriole Park at Camden Yards (1992), just west of the Inner Harbor, was the first of the retro-style ballparks designed to look like those built in the early 20th century. Near the stadium is the birthplace of baseball player Babe Ruth, preserved as a shrine and mus...
  • Came a Hot Friday (work by Morrieson)
    ...whose work deserves more readers than it has had; and Ronald Hugh Morrieson, whose bizarre, semi-surreal, and rollicking stories of small-town life, The Scarecrow (1963) and Came a Hot Friday (1964), were largely ignored when they were published but have since been hailed as unique and valuable. Sylvia Ashton-Warner, by contrast, wrote an international best......
  • Cameahwait (Shoshone leader)
    ...discovered immence ranges of high mountains still to the West of us with their tops partially covered with snow.” Fortunately, in mid-August he met a Shoshone band led by Sacagawea’s brother Cameahwait, who provided the expedition with horses. The Shoshone guide Old Toby joined the expedition and led them across the Bitterroot Range. On the crossing, Clark lamented, “I have...
  • camel (mammal)
    either of two species of large ruminating hoofed mammals of arid Africa and Asia known for their ability to go for long periods without drinking. The Arabian camel, or dromedary (Camelus dromedarius), has one back hump; the Bactrian camel (C. bactrianus) has two....
  • Camel (cigarette)
    ...relief from physical and psychological stress. Certain companies did extraordinarily well from the war: Imperial’s Players and Woodbine brands in Britain and, more spectacularly, R.J. Reynolds’s Camel in the United States. Introduced only in 1913, Camel had reached sales of 20 billion cigarettes by 1920, following a government supply order and a successful marketing campaign. The ...
  • Camel, Battle of the (Islamic history)
    ...community), during whose reign she played an important role in fomenting opposition that led to his murder in 656. She led an army against his successor, ʿAlī, but was defeated in the Battle of the Camel. The engagement derived its name from the fierce fighting that centred around the camel upon which ʿĀʾishah was mounted. Captured, she was allowed to live qui...
  • camel cricket (insect)
    ...Dictyoptera. The grylloblattids (order Grylloblattodea) and walking sticks (order Phasmida) are given ordinal rank also. On the other hand, members of the suborders Ensifera (katydids, crickets, and camel crickets) and Caelifera (pygmy sand crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts) are considered to comprise the order Orthoptera. For completeness of discussion, all of these groups, handled here as.....
  • camel hair (animal fibre)
    animal fibre obtained from the camel and belonging to the group called specialty hair fibres. The most satisfactory textile fibre is gathered from camels of the Bactrian type. Such camels have protective outer coats of coarse fibre that may grow as long as 15 inches (40 cm). The fine, shorter fibre of the insulating undercoat, 1.5–5 inches (4–13 cm) long, is the p...
  • Camel period (African arts)
    Because continuing desertification led to restricted distribution of the horse (represented mainly in Mauritania), the Camel period reflects only present-day fauna: camel, antelope, oryx, gazelle, mouflon, ostrich, humped cattle, and goat. At first the spear was the only weapon depicted, but later the sword and firearms, weapons that are still in use, were added. The style is highly schematic.......
  • camel racing (sport)
    sport of running camels at speed, with a rider astride, over a predetermined course. The sport is generally limited to running the dromedary—whose name is derived from the Greek verb dramein, “to run”—rather than the Bactrian camel....
  • camel spider (arachnid)
    any of 900 species of the arthropod class Arachnida whose common name refers to their habitation of hot, dry regions as well as to the golden colour and daytime activity of most species. They are also called wind scorpions because of their swiftness, camel spiders because of their humped heads, and solpugids because of the former scientific name. Their hairiness and rounded opisthosoma (abdomen) a...
  • camel spin (ice skating)
    ...leg extends beside the bent skating leg. The layback spin, usually performed by women, requires an upright position; the skater arches her back and drops her head and shoulders toward the ice. The camel spin requires one leg to be extended parallel to the ice as the other leg controls the speed of the spin. A scratch spin is done in an upright position, and, depending on which foot the skater.....
  • Camel Through the Needle’s Eye, The (work by Langer)
    Langer achieved his greatest success with Velbloud uchem jehly (1923; The Camel Through the Needle’s Eye), a comedy about lower-class life. Periferie (1925; “The Outskirts”), a psychological drama, deals with a murderer who is frustrated in his attempts to be legally condemned. Of his later writing, only Jízdní hlídka (1935;......
  • “Camel Xiangzi” (work by Lao She)
    ...humour. Yet it was left to him to write modern China’s classic novel, the moving tale of the gradual degeneration of a seemingly incorruptible denizen of China’s “lower depths”—Lo-t’o hsiang-tzu (1936; “Camel Hsiang-tzu,” published in English in a bowdlerized translation as Rickshaw Boy, 1945)....
  • camelaucum (papal dress)
    in Roman Catholicism, a triple crown worn by the pope or carried in front of him, used at some nonliturgical functions such as processions. Beehive-shaped, it is about 15 inches (38 cm) high and is made of silver cloth and ornamented with three diadems, with two streamers, known as lappets, hanging from the back....
  • camelid (mammal)
    Camelids evolved in North America and, at or toward the end of the Tertiary, spread into South America and into the Old World. By the end of the Pleistocene they all became extinct in their homeland, just as horses did. The hypertragulids were a mainly Oligocene group of chevrotain-like forms related to the Protoceratidae. The latter had horns above their noses, a position unique among......
  • Camelidae (mammal)
    Camelids evolved in North America and, at or toward the end of the Tertiary, spread into South America and into the Old World. By the end of the Pleistocene they all became extinct in their homeland, just as horses did. The hypertragulids were a mainly Oligocene group of chevrotain-like forms related to the Protoceratidae. The latter had horns above their noses, a position unique among......
  • Camelina sativa (plant)
    ...probably as the result of competition for nutrients between developing ovules on the placenta. Striking evolutionary changes in seed size, inadvertently created by man, have occurred in the weed Camelina sativa subspecies linicola, which grows in flax fields. The customary winnowing of flax seeds selects forms of Camelina whose seeds are blown over the same distance as flax...
  • Camellia (plant genus)
    genus of about 120 species of East Asian evergreen shrubs and trees, belonging to the tea family (Theaceae), most notable for a few ornamental flowering species and for C. sinensis (sometimes called Thea sinensis), the source of tea. The common camellia (C. japonica) is the best known, particularly for its double (many-petaled) cultivated varieties, whose overlapping petals ra...
  • Camellia sinensis (plant)
    cultivation of the tea plant, usually done in large commercial operations. The plant, a species of evergeen (Camellia sinensis), is valued for its young leaves and leaf buds, from which the tea beverage is produced. This article treats the cultivation of the tea plant. For information on the processing of tea and the history of its use, see the article tea...
  • Camelops (paleontology)
    extinct genus of large camels that existed from the Late Pliocene epoch to the end of the Pleistocene epoch (between 3,400,000 and 10,000 years ago) in western North America from Mexico to Alaska. Camelops is unknown east of the Mississippi River....
  • Camelot (film by Logan [1967])
    ...DinnerAdapted Screenplay: Stirling Silliphant for In the Heat of the NightCinematography: Burnett Guffey for Bonnie and ClydeArt Direction: Edward Carrere and John Truscott for CamelotOriginal Music Score: Elmer Bernstein for Thoroughly Modern MillieScoring of Music Adaptation or Treatment: Ken Darby and Alfred Newman for......
  • Camelot (legendary kingdom, England)
    in Arthurian legend, the seat of King Arthur’s court. It is variously identified with Caerleon, Monmouthshire, in Wales, and, in England, with the following: Queen Camel, Somerset; the little town of Camelford, Cornwall; Winchester, Hampshire; and Cadbury Castle, South Cadbury, Somerset....
  • Camelot (work by Lerner and Loewe)
    ...Major Dundee (1965), and Hawaii (1966). His role as King Arthur in the film version of Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe’s Broadway hit Camelot (1967) was one with which he was permanently associated and one that he often recreated. Camelot also revealed that Harris had a pleasant singing voice, whi...
  • Camelots du Roi (French political group)
    ...Maurras appealed to many traditionalists, professional men, churchmen, and army officers. Action Française readily resorted to both verbal and physical violence, and its organized bands, the Camelots du Roi, anticipated the tactics of later fascist movements. By 1914 Maurras’s movement, though still relatively small, was the most coherent and influential enemy of the republic....
  • camel’s thorns (plant)
    ...native to Turkey, especially L. esculenta. In the Middle East lichen bread and manna jelly are made from Lecanora. Manna also refers to resins produced by two plants called camel’s thorns (Alhagi maurorum and A. pseudalhagi). Both are spiny-branched shrubs less than 1 m (about 3 feet) tall and are native to Turkey. An edible, white honeylike substance.....
  • Camelus (mammal)
    either of two species of large ruminating hoofed mammals of arid Africa and Asia known for their ability to go for long periods without drinking. The Arabian camel, or dromedary (Camelus dromedarius), has one back hump; the Bactrian camel (C. bactrianus) has two....
  • Camelus bactrianus (mammal)
    animal fibre obtained from the camel and belonging to the group called specialty hair fibres. The most satisfactory textile fibre is gathered from camels of the Bactrian type. Such camels have protective outer coats of coarse fibre that may grow as long as 15 inches (40 cm). The fine, shorter fibre of the insulating undercoat, 1.5–5 inches (4–13 cm) long, is the product generally......
  • Camelus dromedarius (mammal)
    animal fibre obtained from the camel and belonging to the group called specialty hair fibres. The most satisfactory textile fibre is gathered from camels of the Bactrian type. Such camels have protective outer coats of coarse fibre that may grow as long as 15 inches (40 cm). The fine, shorter fibre of the insulating undercoat, 1.5–5 inches (4–13 cm) long, is the product generally......
  • Camembert cheese
    classic cow’s-milk cheese of Normandy, named for a village in that region; its characteristic creamy, ivory-coloured interior and downy white surface, resembling that of Brie, result from the Penicillium camemberti mold with which the curd is treated. Camembert curd is customarily shaped in disks of 4.5 inches (11 cm) in width and 1.5 inches (4 cm) in thickness; by the action of the...
  • Camena (Romania)
    city, capital of Neamţ judeţ (county), northeastern Romania. It lies in the valley of the Bistriţa River and is surrounded by mountains. It is first documented in the 15th century as Piatra lui Crăciun, or Camena, a market town where fairs were held. Stephen the Great of Moldavia built the Church of St. John there in 1497–98, a classic e...
  • Camenae (Roman deity)
    in Roman religion, goddesses who were perhaps originally water deities, having a sacred grove and spring located outside the Porta Capena at Rome. Believed able to cure diseases and prophesy the future, the Camenae were offered libations of water and milk. In the 2nd century bc the poet Quintus Ennius identified them with the Muses....
  • Camenes (syllogistic)
    Fourth figure:Bramantip, Camenes, Dimaris, Fesapo,...
  • Camenop (syllogistic)
    Fresison, *Camenop....
  • cameo (jewelry)
    hard or precious stone carved in relief, or imitations of such stones in glass (called pastes) and mollusk shell. The cameo is usually a gem (commonly agate, onyx, or sardonyx) having two different coloured layers, with the figures carved in one layer so that they are raised on a background of the other. The cameo is the converse of the intaglio, which consists of an incised, or sunken, engraving...
  • cameo glass (art)
    glassware decorated with figures and forms of coloured glass carved in relief against a glass background of a contrasting colour. Such ware is produced by blowing two layers of glass together. When the glass has cooled, a rough outline of the desired design is drawn on its surface and covered with a protective coating of beeswax. The glass is then etched down to the inner layer, leaving the desig...
  • cameo incrustation (glass)
    cut crystal glass in which a decorative ceramic object is embedded. A Bohemian invention of the 18th century, cameo incrustation was taken up in Paris but had no vogue until Apsley Pellatt, an English glassmaker, developed a technique that resulted in specimens of genuine beauty. In 1819 Pellatt patented his process under the name crystallo ceramie and began to issue his ware from the Falco...
  • camera (photography)
    in photography, device for recording an image of an object on a light-sensitive surface; it is essentially a light-tight box with an aperture to admit light focused onto a sensitized film or plate....
  • camera angle (cinematography)
    Another element in motion-picture language is the shooting angle. In common language, the phrases “to look up to” and “to look down on” have connotations of admiration and condescension in addition to their obvious reference to physical viewpoint. In one sense or another, children, dogs, and beggars are often looked down upon, while the preacher in his pulpit, the judge...
  • Camera degli Sposi (room, Mantua, Italy)
    The Gonzaga patronage provided Mantegna a fixed income (which did not always materialize) and the opportunity to create what became his best-known surviving work, the so-called Camera degli Sposi in the Palazzo Ducale at Mantua. Earlier practitioners of 15th-century perspective delimited a rectangular field as a transparent window onto the world and constructed an imaginary space behind its......
  • camera lucida (photography)
    (Latin: “light chamber”), optical instrument invented in 1807 by William Hyde Wollaston to facilitate accurate sketching of objects. It consists of a four-sided prism mounted on a small stand above a sheet of paper. By placing the eye close to the upper edge of the prism so that half the pupil of the eye is over the prism, the observer is able t...
  • camera movement (camera work)
    Framing, scale, and shooting angle are all greatly modified by the use of camera movement. Filmmakers began experimenting with camera movement almost immediately after the motion-picture camera was developed. In 1897 photographers employed by Auguste and Louis Lumière floated a cinématographe, the combination camera/projector devised by the......
  • Camera Notes (American publication)
    ...to getting his way. He quickly became a leader of photography’s fine-art movement in the United States (part of an international phenomenon). In 1892 he became editor of Camera Notes, the publication of the Camera Club of New York, a position that allowed him to advance the photographers and policies he favoured. By 1902, however, resentment in the club had...
  • camera obscura (photography)
    ancestor of the photographic camera. The Latin name means “dark chamber,” and the earliest versions, dating to antiquity, consisted of small darkened rooms with light admitted through a single tiny hole. The result was that an inverted image of the outside scene was cast on the opposite wall, which was usually whitened. For centuries the technique was used for viewing eclipses of th...
  • Camera obscura (work by Beets)
    Dutch pastor and writer whose Camera obscura is a classic of Dutch literature....
  • camera ottica (visual arts)
    ...Such was the pressure upon him that he ultimately was forced to work largely from drawings and even from other artists’ engravings, rather than from nature. He also developed the use of the camera ottica, a device by which a lens threw onto a ground-glass screen the image of a view, which could be used as a basis for a drawing or painting. Finally, he developed a mechanical......
  • Camera Picta (room, Mantua, Italy)
    The Gonzaga patronage provided Mantegna a fixed income (which did not always materialize) and the opportunity to create what became his best-known surviving work, the so-called Camera degli Sposi in the Palazzo Ducale at Mantua. Earlier practitioners of 15th-century perspective delimited a rectangular field as a transparent window onto the world and constructed an imaginary space behind its......
  • camera tripod (photography)
    The camera must be mounted on a substantial support to avoid extraneous movements while film is being exposed. In its simplest form this is a heavy tripod structure, with sturdy but smooth-moving adjustments and casters, so that the exact desired position can be quickly reached. Often a heavy dolly, holding both the camera and a seated cameraman, is used. This can be pushed or driven around the......
  • Camera Work (photography magazine)
    To promote his goals (and, presumably, the goals of the Photo-Secession), Stieglitz introduced a quarterly publication called Camera Work; its first issue appeared in January 1903, and a total of 50 issues would be produced before it ceased publication in 1917. The magazine would largely define the artistic ambitions of amateur photographers in the first quarter......
  • caméra-stylo (film technique)
    ...and, more prominently, of André Bazin, whose thought molded an entire generation of filmmakers, critics, and scholars. In 1948 Astruc formulated the concept of the caméra-stylo (“camera-pen”), in which film was regarded as a form of audiovisual language and the filmmaker, therefore, as a kind of writer in light. Bazin’s.....
  • cameralism (European economic policy)
    For the state to continue to draw high taxes without ruining land and people, the country’s level of wealth had to be raised. Frederick William therefore pursued an aggressive policy (known as cameralism) of stimulating agriculture and manufacturing while reducing unnecessary expenditures; even his court was stripped of many of its royal trappings. Export bans preserved raw materials, and.....
  • Cameraman’s Revenge, The (animation by Starewicz)
    ...(also billed as Ladislas Starevitch), a Polish art student and amateur entomologist, created stop-motion animation with bugs and dolls; among his most celebrated films are The Cameraman’s Revenge (1912), in which a camera-wielding grasshopper uses the tools of his trade to humiliate his unfaithful wife, and the feature-length The Tale of the......
  • Camerarius, Joachim (German scholar and theologian)
    German classical scholar and Lutheran theologian who mediated between Protestants and Catholics at the Reformation....
  • Camerarius, Rudolph Jacob (German botanist)
    botanist who demonstrated the existence of sexes in plants....
  • Camerata (Italian society of poets and musicians)
    Florentine society of intellectuals, poets, and musicians, the first of several such groups that formed in the decades preceding 1600. The Camerata met about 1573–87 under the patronage of Count Giovanni Bardi. The group’s efforts to revive ancient Greek music— building on the work of the theorist Girolamo Mei—were an important factor in the evolution...
  • Çamëria (region, Balkan peninsula)
    ...pressure from Albania’s neighbours, the great powers largely ignored demographic realities and ceded the vast region of Kosovo to Serbia, while in the south Greece was given the greater part of Çamëria, a part of the old region of Epirus centred on the Thíamis River. Many observers doubted whether the new state would be viable with about one-half of Albanian lands an...
  • Cameron (county, Pennsylvania, United States)
    county, north-central Pennsylvania, U.S., consisting of a mountainous region on the Allegheny Plateau. The principal stream is Sinnemahoning Creek, which divides itself into the Bennett and Driftwood branches. Parklands include Elk State Forest and Sinnemahoning, Bucktail, and Sizerville state parks....
  • Cameron, Alistair G. W. (American astronomer)
    Later in the 1970s the American astronomer A.G.W. Cameron developed a much more massive model of the protostar nebula, in which the comets accreted in a circular ring at some 1,000 AU from the Sun, which is far beyond the present limits of the planetary system. The primeval circular orbits were then transformed into the elongated ellipses present in the Oort cloud by mass loss of the primitive......
  • Cameron, Charles (Scottish architect)
    Two foreign architects played important roles: a Scotsman, Charles Cameron, whose most extensive work was at Tsarskoye Selo in the style invented by Robert Adam and who was responsible for introducing the first correct Greek Doric column and entablature in Russia in the circular Temple of Friendship at Pavlovsk (1780); and an Italian, Giacomo Antonio Domenico Quarenghi, who arrived in Russia in......
  • Cameron, David (British politician)
    British politician, who became head of Britain’s Conservative Party in 2005....
  • Cameron, David William Donald (British politician)
    British politician, who became head of Britain’s Conservative Party in 2005....
  • Cameron, Duncan (Canadian fur trader)
    fur trader who became involved in a rivalry with the Hudson’s Bay Company over the settlement of the Red River region of western Canada....
  • Cameron Highlands (resort area, Malaysia)
    resort area of west-central West Malaysia (Malaya), in the Main Range, about 80 miles (130 km) south of southernmost Thailand. It comprises a cool highland plateau (elevation 4,750 feet [1,448 metres]), developed by the British in the 1940s as a hill station and named for William Cameron, who explored the area in 1885. Its hotels are mostly European in architecture. Hundreds of floral species rare...
  • Cameron, James (Canadian filmmaker)
    It was full speed ahead for James Cameron in 1998 as the Canadian filmmaker defied critics and logistics by building a Titanic that refused to sink. His screen adaptation of the doomed ocean liner’s 1912 maiden voyage sailed into the record books, grossing more than $1.5 billion worldwide and tying Ben-Hur (1959) for most Academy Awards won (11). Skillfully blending special ef...
  • Cameron, Julia Margaret (British photographer)
    British photographer who is considered one of the greatest portrait photographers of the 19th century....
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